Mainstreaming: Special Education and Regular Classroom Essay

Mainstreaming is an important issue and realism that has a direct impact on all parties involved, including educators, students and parents. Mainstreaming is a matter that has become very controversial and therefore it requires important awareness and understanding from all peoples involved. One essential way of gaining this understanding and awareness is by reviewing what mainstreaming really is, as well as the positive and negative aspects that may arise from it. Defining the Issue: Mainstreaming. Mainstreaming, now more commonly referred to as inclusion, is thought of as the integration of exceptional students into regular educational settings, in which emphasis is placed on participation rather than placement (Perry, Winne & Woolfolk, 2000 p. 136). A classroom that is mainstreamed, is one which includes many different types of learners; in other words, mainstreaming is a classroom that accommodates students with disabilities and those without, as well as those students who are thought of as being gifted with an IQ score of above average. Disabled children in a mainstreamed classroom may vary greatly in the types of disability they might have. For example, children may have one or more of the following disabilities: physical, behavioral, mental or learning disability. It is evident then, that a classroom that is mainstreamed will indeed present a number of challenges for the teacher, since he or she must accommodate to so many different needs of the students. The main purpose of mainstreaming is to â€Å"equally support and promote a typical classroom experience for all students† (Lyness, 2001, p.3). However, this does not exclude the usage of outside support services such as teachers’ assistance or resource rooms. Therefore, the basic idea of mainstreaming is for students to receive assistance, while also benefiting from a regular classroom atmosphere. Positive Viewpoints of Mainstreaming There are a number of interesting points that support the idea of mainstreaming. For example, in a mainstreamed classroom all special education students must have an Individual Education Program (IEP). An IEP is an â€Å"annually revised program detailing present achievement level, goals and strategies, drawn up by teachers, parents, specialist and if possible the student† (Perry, Winne, & Woolfolk, 2000, p. 138). The use of the IEP is geared to meet the needs of the special education student. This is an issue that should be further educated and explained to the parties involved, most importantly the parents, since most of them feel that their child may not be receiving the support that they need in order to perform adequately in a regular classroom. As mentioned previously, students in a mainstreamed classroom receive support services such as teachers’ aids and access to resource rooms. Resource rooms are generally equipped with materials that are designed to meet the needs of the special educational student. A student may spent as much time as they need in the resource room with a special education teacher in order to receive the extra help they need. Another point that supports the idea of manstreaming is the fact that it seems to be beneficial for all students, both disabled and non-disabled. For example, placing special education students in a regular classroom reduces the risk of the student as being labeled or stigmatized. This point stands out clearly in the statement by Perry, Winne & Woolfolk (2000) that Segregation away from the mainstream in special classes robs disabled students of the opportunity to learn to participate fully in society, robs non-disables students of the opportunity to develop understanding and acceptance of the disabled, and increases the likelihood that the individual will be stigmatized (p. 139). Also, a classroom that includes and involves different types of learners is one that will be more accepting of the differences present amongst the students. According to studies by Lyness (2001), research has shown that students without disabilities who are in a mainstreamed classroom accept and value the differences in their classmates, have enhanced self esteem, and a genuine capacity for friendship. It is important for students to respect the differences of their peers, which is what a mainstreamed classroom helps to accomplish. Negative Viewpoints of Mainstreaming Along with the good points of mainstreaming come a number of interesting points that do not support the idea of mainstreaming. For example, in a mainstreamed classroom a child may not feel a sense of belonging from other children. This may been displayed in the form of teasing or ridicule, in which the special education students self esteem is greatly affected. Feelings of inadequacy to keep up with non-disabled students may also arise amongst special education students. Perry, Winne & Woolfolk (2000), state that â€Å"disabled students can be just as socially isolated in a regular class as they would in a special education class, across the hall across the country† (p. 139). Another pessimistic viewpoint of mainstreaming is the great demand that is places on the teachers. With so few teachers available and the large amount of students in need of assistance, it is impossible for teachers to focus special attention on individual students with special educational needs. This creates a problem for both the teacher, whose job becomes absolutely over whelming and stressful, as well as the special education student who lacks the vital support and attention that he or she may need. Mainstreaming may also place pressure on special education students. For example, a special education student may feel that he or she may have to perform at the same level as his or her fellow classmates even though the disability they possess prevents them from doing so. Fracine McNamara states how â€Å"mainstreaming is very difficult for special needs children ?and it is hard enough for a regular education child to keep up with the curriculum and the world, it is even harder for a children with road blocks† (Pantazis, 2000, p. 11). My Opinion As this paper demonstrates, I also agree that there are positive and negative aspects that are associated with mainstreaming. I do agree that children should have individual programs that support their needs, as they would receive in a special education program; if these needs can be met within a regular classroom, all the better. I also believe that by placing special education students in a regular classroom, this can increase their motivation to perform well in school. Often, when children are placed in special education classrooms, they do not perform to the best of their ability because they are stigmatized into thinking they can not do better. I also believe another advantage of mainstreaming is the fact that special needs children may begin to model the positive behaviors of regular students  such as completion of homework, improved social skills and age appropriate behaviors. This is especially important for children with behavior problems, since they often may need a positive role model in order to perform to the best of their ability. I also believe that in some cases exceptional students are very good in non-academic areas such as sports, drawing and mainstreaming allows these students to share their skills with regular students. This, in turn, is beneficial for both parties. However, I also believe that in some cases mainstreaming is not the best option for all special needs children. Some children’s needs go far beyond what a regular classroom can offer. Self-contained programs are necessary for these types of children, programs that teach children skills that will be useful to the in the real world, and also prepare them for community living. These life skills may include personal hygiene, money managing, basic household chores and safety. Also, severely handicapped children need to be in contact with other students who share a common affliction. This is not likely to happen in a mainstreamed classroom since regular students outnumber special education students. By taking a closer look at the definition of mainstreaming as well as the positive and negative aspects associated with it, one can perhaps acquire better understanding and awareness of the issue. As this paper has demonstrated, there are both positive and negative viewpoints of mainstreaming, which in turn, cause large amounts of controversy. However, the most important issue, which must not be forgotten, is it is vital to help all students obtain the best education possible. References Lyness, D. (2001). http://www. kidsheath. org Pantazis, S. (2000). http://www. epinions. com Perry, N. , Winne, P. , Woolfolk, A. (2000). Educational Psychology. Scarborough: Allyn and Bacon Canada.

The Context of Social, Cultural and Consumer Behaviour – Article Review

Gordon A. Haaland Summary People often behave differently. And since these behaviours are not identical, they are construed to parallel constructs such as learning, attitudes, influence and reference groups. The author has presented certain levels of analysis that provide for the source for interpreting and recognising the theory of social, cultural and consumer behaviour. Social behaviour can be appropriately conceptualized through these varying levels of analysis, which at different points of time, have been suggested by several social theorists. The problems encountered at various levels of analysis, has been illustrated by taking the example of the author’s experience of living in Norway for a year. In addition, the experience of being considered a ‘cultural stereotype’ has also been illustrated through the same example. To investigate the causes of such cross-cultural behavioural patters existing in a society that is moving towards rapid industralisation such as Norway and to conduct a research on the changes in the patterns of the interpersonal behaviour, the author has offered 11 propositions in order to address these issues. These propositions are centered on the varying levels of analysis that was put forth to study the different constructs of social, cultural and consumer behaviour. And the propositions do present a context for the analysis with a special concern for the type of culture that is being taken into consideration. Review The article suggests the context for studying the theory and the rationale of social and consumer behaviour. In doing so, the author has identified certain constructs that are perceived to govern social and consumer behaviour. He further suggests levels of analysis that would provide for an understanding into the inter-disciplinary factors of cross-culture and culture-specific behaviour. When the author cites the reference made by Kuhn (1962) regarding ‘paradigm’, i. e. social sciences needs a paradigm like that of natural science, it holds true when all of social behaviour is abridged to a set of related phenomenon. In that context, the author’s contention that when social behaviour is assumed a unitary phenomenon, then any of the given disciplines (disciplines often followed by social and behavioural scientists) can be paradigmatic also holds good. Various concepts suggested by various theorists, for the levels of analysis have been given importance for the insinuations provided for understanding social behaviour. Triandis, Malpass and Davidson (1973) argument that behaviour is a function of a person’s abilities, subjective culture, personal dispositions, physical environment, social structure and so on, most of the variables as pointed out by the author are prevalent in a contemporary set up. Hansen (1972)* says that an individual is also driven by ‘perceived individuality and value importance’ which also help affect decision making. More often than not, the effect depends on the degree of positive and negative reward that was previously associated with the value. It can therefore, be assumed that these two variables can also be considered as behavioural constructs. The issue of ‘culture stereotyping’ has been brilliantly explained by the author, by taking the example of no other that his own. The cross-cultural references had been drawn from his own experiences of his stay in Norway for nearly one year. But considering the social, economic, cultural and demographic arrangement in Norway, the example of being treated as a culture stereotype limits the study of interpersonal behaviour and crossculture between the Norwegians and the Americans. Similar constructs for analysis in different geographic locations may not hold significance, as the behavioural patterns and culture-specific stereotypes may be different. The propositions set out by the author have been arrived at after the research that was carried out by him during his stay in Norway. Though hypothetical, these propositions are meant to cut down the levels of analysis into ‘singular set of statements’ that would present a view on the concept from a broader perspective. Most of the propositions mentioned by the author, concentrate on the idea of social and consumer behaviour within the confines of a set up. A set up such as a workplace, a group of people sharing similar attributes (by interlocking normative behaviour of people within an organisation) or people who belong to a culture that has evolved for centuries with little or less change. The author also talks about the existence of ‘meaningful boundaries’, wherein he assumes cohesiveness in a group as a system. Group cohesiveness, by and large, is determined by the attributes of persons forming that group and the interests they share among one another. Boundaries as the author has pointed out refers to the units measured being naturally related and not the place or structure. Taking into account Berrien’s (1968) inferences about boundaries, it should be considered that boundaries transcend beyond natural levels. Certain other propositions that pertain to ‘time and place’ define the necessity of studying culture across various generational as well as geographic differences. Studies which are limited to only one time and place would also result in a single time and place analysis. The idea to study multiple levels of analysis across cultures by remaining within the constructs of a particular level of analysis is apt. Cross-cultural phenomenon that explain similarities in cultures as ‘etic’ and dissimilarities as ‘emic’ proves the importance of digressing from various levels of time and place and study social behaviour by delineating conditions of interaction with time and place. The other propositions that deal with selection of methodology and design questions for the level of analysis and the use of multivariate analysis and preparation of theoretical statements for a particular level follow suit. Propositions seven, eight, nine and ten provide with the details at each level, thereby giving a meaningful insight into the levels of analysis. The author talks about there being no ‘apriori’ basis for selecting a level for social analysis centered on consumer behaviour. This can be considered a valid statement since consumer problems are diverse and assume proportions of complexities when encountered in different scenarios and culture set ups. The propositions as put forth by the author do provide an insight into the varying levels of complexities in social, cultural and consumer behaviour, but these propositions could fall vulnerable to deeper investigation into the context of social behaviour. All the views and opinions expressed by the author may pertain to a particular generation, but the relevance of these propositions remain to be the same. It is all a matter of time, so to say, when cross-cultural insinuations and study of social behavioural patterns across different cultures could indeed present revealing analysis of consumer behaviour.

How McDonalds use motivational theories Essay

To what extent do McDonalds use motivational theories to enhance the performance of their employees and hence increase efficiency/productivity? Are these methods effective? Introduction McDonalds is a large multinational company that supplies millions of people with fast food. It is important for them to ensure that the workforce they employ is working to their full potential. McDonalds are very customer/ market orientated. They depend on a reputation for customer service. If employees are not motivated then this will suffer. If workers aren’t motivated costs rise. E.g. training costs increase in proportion to staff turnover. â€Å"When an employee is given a task to do and it is not carried out satisfactorily, this failure may well be due to a lack of motivation, rather than a lack of ability†. With this in mind McDonalds must ensure that their workforce is motivated. Motivation can be linked to a number of factors such as pay, working hours, working environment etc. (see appendix p1 for full list). As well as these the corporate culture and management styles can play a part influencing the motivation of the employees. Well-motivated employees achieve more. They are more committed, vigorous and productive. Over the years various strategies for motivating employees have been developed. These are known as motivational theories. Many different and often contrasting theories have been put forward by a number of different theorists (see appendix p1, p2). I am going to look into the extent that McDonalds, Hertford, use these. Hypothesis/theories Employees who are poorly motivated often score badly on at least one of the factors influencing motivation: an undemanding job, unpleasant working conditions and low pay. (see appendix p1) A lack of motivation- either limited to one area or department, or spread throughout the firm- cause employee dissatisfaction. This results in a higher labour turnover leading to a waste of time and money (see appendix p2) increased incidents of absenteeism and/ or sickness, poor timekeeping, and more disputes between both formal and informal groups within the firm. Motivational problems are not easily overcome. Normally if one person in a whole workforce is unmotivated they will start moaning to the other employees. This can then cause the problems to spread as those that have heard the moaning may also start to moan (low motivation and moaning become contagious). The problems become very hard to stop dead. I feel that an organisation such as McDonalds will try to prevent them arising in the first place. Also according to V.H Room the greater the motivation of an employee the greater the chance of them performing a set task providing they have the ability. He put this into an equation: Performance = Ability x Motivation (people need the ability to do a task but they also need the motivation to do it) This equation leads me to think that McDonalds will use a lot of motivational theories as the equation shows that motivation is a very important factor influencing a person’s performance so McDonalds will try to increase it in as many ways as they possible can. Method Primary research To find the information that I needed I constructed a questionnaire table that gave me a lot of information in as little a time as possible. One table told me what McDonalds were doing to motivate the staff and which of these motivation techniques they found effective. (See appendix for method on the  questionnaire and data collection) Secondary research I used data collected by the key skills group in my year. They constructed a questionnaire to pupils in year twelve to find out â€Å"what factors motivate them in their paid work and how this information could be useful to employers†. Then I took particular questions from this for my work and they gave me the results for these. The questions that I used were 5,6 and 7. (See appendix for copy of this questionnaire Pages 6,7). This was relevant to me as some of the question lead to answers that could be related to motivational theories and motivation in general. Analysis The results collected showed that McDonalds used a lot of factors to motivate their workforce and the results showed that the factors the employees found the most important in motivating them were the ones that McDonalds had satisfied well. (The results table in the appendix p4,p5 shows this where the two columns both have the number three in them) It seems that rather than use one single motivational theory McDonalds have taken all of them and tried to combine as shown on the bottom of the back page in the appendix where I have linked factors from my questionnaire table to specific theories. (See appendix p5 for evidence) McDonalds has a democratic leadership style and a task culture (see appendix for definitions/explanations p1) both of which are associated with McGregors theory Y worker (see McGregor in the appendix p1). This increases motivation according to the survey that was carried out by the key skill group. (See appendix p8 for results proving this) There is group working associated with Elton Mayo yet there is a performance related pay scheme that would be linked to F.W Taylor. They have even taken into account the work done by Fredrick Hertzberg which says that an  employees needs can be put broadly into two categories of motivators and Hygiene factors (see appendix p1 Hertzberg). He says that although hygiene factors should be present- motivation falls if they are ignored- they themselves do not motivate employees. His theory suggests that managers must provide motivators in the form of job enrichment and job rotation schemes. As you can see from the table of results (appendix p5) McDonalds staff have said that this is important to them and have said that job rotation schemes have been used and used well. The Questionnaire that the key skills group constructed showed that most of the students were given training in their job and that the vast majority thought that they should have been trained. It is suggested that if proper training were given it would motivate the employees. However I feel that whether an employee is given training or not is better linked to Hertzberg’s motivators and hygiene factors because he says that a hygiene factor alone will not motivate a person however if the factor is neglected then it will cause a lack of motivation. This seems to be the case with training as shown by Question 6 of the key skill questionnaire. Evaluation My prediction that McDonalds would use a lot of motivational theories seems to be correct, as they do not just use one of the theories they have integrated all of them And they have a democratic leadership style. However despite all this they still have quite a lot of labour turnover. â€Å"We do everything we can to ensure that the staff are motivated. We give them proper training and a 4 week trial period yet myself and my colleagues still find ourselves short due to employees not staying with us for that long† said the store manager when I was conducting my research. One view (a) could that this could be down to the fact that most of the employees are young and still at school, college or university. Therefore they may quit the job when they have to start revising for exams, when they go home from their universities or when they finish school and go in search of a permanent higher paid job or career. All of this leads to higher recruitment and training costs. Showing that although the staff they have stated they are motivated they are still losing employees thus showing that they are not being as efficient as they would like. They are making their employees more productive and efficient but are not being efficient in keeping them. (See problems of labour turnover in the appendix p2). Another view (b) could be that staff do not see McDonalds offering a long term career. Alternative jobs are available to the staff and the pay is about the same (Evidence from results of Q5 in the key skills survey). This indicates that their staff retention problems are more likely down to the factors outlined in view (a) above. Conclusion From the data collected I can conclude that McDonalds in Hertford uses motivational theories to a very large extent. My research showed that they have tried to take all of the theories, put together by all of the theorists, and combine them as well as adopting a democratic leadership to make sure that they benefit from a hard working, motivated and therefore productive workforce. The company appears to have the correct type of management as the results of the key skills survey question 7 (See appendix p8) suggests that the workers are McGregors theory Y workers (appendix McGregor p1) I feel that the company is being effective in motivating the employees and my research proves this. This shows that they are using all of the motivational theories to their advantage shown in the appendix where the motivational factors are linked to theory. One of the reasons for motivating the workforce was to increase productivity and I think that they have done this as my questionnaire showed that the employees were motivated. This motivation will increase their productivity and performance according to the manager and V.H Rooms equation. (See appendix p2) I conclude that McDonalds have increased their efficiency to a small extent just by increasing staff productivity because if each worker is producing faster then they are cutting costs in the form of time. However my research showed that McDonalds, Hertford, are not being as efficient as possible as they are still suffering from labour turnover but this may be nothing to do with lack of motivation but simply that the predominantly young staff do not regard it as long term employment option although they do tend to be employed for 1 to 2 years as part time staff.

New Religious Movements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

New Religious Movements - Essay Example Not only do these NRMs catch the attention of scholars, but they also caught also the interest of the general population. The most crucial moment for public awareness in cults or new religious movements occurred in November, 1978, when some 900 members of the The Peoples Temple in Jonestown, Guyana died by murder and suicide. Moreover, some movements have been accused of ongoing human rights abuses, child abuse, brainwashing, prostitution, financial fraud and swindling.3 Only a small number of the older cults such as the the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints have garnered huge membership all throughout the world. Of those groups formed in the twentieth century, only a few, such as the American Muslim Mission (found in 1930), can count their membership in the tens of thousands.4 National polls report that 19 in 20 Americans affirm a belief in God, and 4 in 10 said to join Sunday services regularly. Nevertheless, these surveys do not show how and what the people really believe in. Therefore, a number of new religious movements develop to fill these gaps. ... Moreover, the rise of new religious movements and cults also reflects the tensions that exist in the society at large, usually evolve from pressures that increased public acceptance of ideas outside the established religious institutions. As an example, the cultural revolutions of the 1960's lessen the social taboos against religious testing. Furthermore, technological advancements, particularly the Internet and the access world travel, enable a lot of people to access wider beliefs and religious systems and making it easier for small religious groups to form.5 Additionally, new religious movements continue to grow due to: existence of man's spiritual needs, man's cultural identity search, filling a void in man's heart, man's seeking for answers to vital questions, cults cashing in on pastoral weakness of established religious institutions, a plot from the devil, existences of a charismatic leader/founder/guru, prevailing weaknesses of the members, and the doctrines uniqueness of the movement. Existence of spiritual needs.The evolution of cults or new religious movements often indicate that there are spiritual needs which have not been fulfilled or even identified, or which the Church and other established religious institutions have either not aware of or not able to provide.6 Cultural identity search.The new religious movements are able to attract huge number members because there are always people searching for meaning when they are feeling gone astray in a period of cultural revolution.7 Filling a void.Many Christians join the cults or new religious movements because their hunger

The Education System in Great Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Education System in Great Britain - Essay Example Assessment Reform Group, 2006 research argues that various teaching practices rely on the understanding of language and socials behavior with the learning environment. The strategies in teaching frequently recommend for the use of various teaching aids to ensure that all students are incorporated especially those that need special attention like the autism students. There should be a clearly defined teaching structure and daily routine entangled with the use of visual cues where appropriate. According to Broadfoot, teachers should ensure that they use unambiguous classroom language to make clear their teaching and enhance proper understanding of the students in all their teachings. Clear explanations and regulations in classes, playground, and other social rules should be emphasized by the teachers. Additionally, there should be sharing of the purpose of activities and assessment as well as their intended outcomes.Assessment Reform Group, 2006 research argues that various teaching pr actices rely on the understanding of language and socials behavior with the learning environment. The strategies in teaching frequently recommend for the use of various teaching aids to ensure that all students are incorporated especially those that need special attention like the autism students. There should be a clearly defined teaching structure and daily routine entangled with the use of visual cues where appropriate. According to Broadfoot, teachers should ensure that they use unambiguous classroom language to make clear their teaching and enhance proper understanding of the students in all their teachings. Clear explanations and regulations in classes, playground, and other social rules should be emphasized by the teachers. Additionally, there should be sharing of the purpose of activities and assessment as well as their intended outcomes.   Assessment Reform Group, 2006 argues that learning is one of the most basic processes in a personal life course. It is second to one o f the most contrived processes, the assessment of that learning. Most developed countries have been making efforts to pursue reliable and valid means of assessing peoples’ learning, a process that generates a high volume of published discourse and not infrequently, dissent as well as the documentation of various assessment policies which are inclusive of practices and theories. Some of the discourses include the ways learners can move the next stage ensuring their learning progress.

Compare and contrast the total populations and total GDPs as well as Essay

Compare and contrast the total populations and total GDPs as well as the GDPs per capita - Essay Example Arabia has a total GDP of just $718.50bn (the highest in the OPEC Middle East Bloc), with GDP per capita of just $26.27, as compared to the highest GDP per capita of $100.51 in the Middle East Bloc (The World Fact Book, 2015). Interestingly, a good measure of wealth of a country is the GDP per capita, and that places Saudi Arabia at the third last slot in the list of OPEC Middle East Bloc, while a comparison with the GDP per capita of G7 nations leaves Saudi way below the country with the least GDP per capita in the G7 (Italy with a GDP per capita of $33.52). The G7 bloc has an average GDP per capita of $45.16 compared to a figure of just $14.11 portrayed by the OPEC Middle East Bloc. To much surprise, while the highest GDP amongst the two lots is that of the United States, Canada and US share a GDP per capita figure thanks to Canada’s low population as compared to its overall GDP. The highest population in the OPEC Middle East Bloc is found in Iran, at 80.84bn people, while the lowest is found if Qatar, at 2.12bn. Similarly, the highest population in the G7 as well as the OPEC Middle East Bloc is made up by USA (318.89bn), whereas the country with the lowest population in the G7 Bloc is Canada at 34.83bn people (The World Fact Book,

Foreigners Changing China, 1850-1980 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Foreigners Changing China, 1850-1980 - Essay Example 1 The Chinese were even more ashamed by having to let go of legal jurisdiction over segments of these port cities and over foreigners living in China. Chinese were actually ruled out from amenities and areas managed by foreigners. The Chinese were furthermore compelled under the treaties to enable Western Christian missionaries to proselytize in the inside of the nation. Between the first primary battle, the Opium War of 1839-42, and the early 1900s, the British, French, Germans, Americans, and Japanese competed for "spheres of influence" within China until it absolutely was susceptible to getting "carved up just like a melon." A string of natural calamities (drought and famine) and non-natural adversities (particularly floods from eroding water-control functions, made a whole lot worse by over-reclamation of the wetlands, lowlands, and hill slopes which were essential to handle water runoff) strike China in the late 19th century. The weak point of the country and the disturbances of the overall economy on account of the Western existence left China struggling to make available its massive population. A number of rebellions took place across the nation. The Taiping (185l-1864), Nian (Nien) (1853-1868), Moslem (1855-1873), and Boxer (1898-190l) rebellions all occurred in the second section of the 19th century. In the course of the Taiping Rebellion, rebel factors managed a sizable part of China, and set up their capital in the town of Nanking. The potential of the central government was more destabilized as army power was delegated to the provinces to manage these rebellions. 2 Since the onset of 20th Century, China was considered one of the most popular growing marketplaces for international investment. One approximation of whole international budget put into China in 1938 place it at $2.5 billion, third behind India and Argentina as a focus of creating market investment,

Obstructive Jaundice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Obstructive Jaundice - Essay Example Here most of the bilirubin combines with glucuronide to form conjugated or direct bilirubin, then is absorbed in bile, and excreted in the feces. If a disorder prevents this process from completing itself, the yellow-colored bilirubin builds up in the system until it becomes remarkable in the mucous membranes and skin (What is Jaundice 2006). The discoloration usually is detected clinically once the serum bilirubin level rises above 3 mg per dL (51.3 mol per L) (Roche and Kabos, 2004). Jaundice in an adult patient can be due to a wide array of benign or deadly disorders. Organizing the differential diagnosis by prehepatic, intrahepatic, and posthepatic causes may help make the work-up more manageable. Prehepatic causes of jaundice include hemolysis and hematoma resorption, which lead to elevated levels of unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin. Intrahepatic disorders can result to unconjugated or conjugated hyperbilirubinemia. The conjugated (direct) bilirubin level is often elevated by alcohol, infectious hepatitis, drug reactions, and autoimmune disorders. Posthepatic disorders also can cause conjugated hyperbilirubinemia (qtd. from Roche and Kobos, 2004). ... Hepatic jaundice causes range from acute viral hepatitis to liver disease caused alcoholism. Neonatal jaundice, common in newborns, is usually brief lasting only a week or so and is thought to be a result of the still-developing physiology. Though it is usually harmless and in most cases passes on its own, any infant displaying signs of jaundice should be seen by a pediatrician. (In newborns the liver sometimes requires a week or so to adjust and jaundice may be present during this time. Though this is not due to disease, it is still considered hepatic because liver function is at the root of the condition (What is Jaundice 2006). Post-hepatic (obstructive) jaundice, occurs when bile cannot discharge properly to the feces. Gallstones obstructing the bile duct, other ductal obstructions and certain cancers can cause post-hepatic jaundice marked by pale stools lacking the normal pigment contained in bile (What is Jaundice 2006). Obstructive jaundice Obstructive jaundice caused by obstruction of the bile ducts, as with gallstones. The liver normally produces about 1 litre of bile each day, which is secreted (passed) into the bile duct system and stored in the gallbladder. The bile duct empties into the upper intestine (duodenum) to help in digestion. Obstruction anywhere in this drainage system causes the blood levels of bilirubin to increase, resulting in "obstructive jaundice (What is obstructive Jaundice 2005)." Causes of obstructive jaundice Jaundice is not critical by itself however could indicate a more serious underlying conditions that should be diagnosed and treated as early as possible (What is Jaundice 2006). A thoroughly investigated is needed so that the underlying cause can be

Defining and Assessing Modern CSR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Defining and Assessing Modern CSR - Essay Example Ethical responsibility means the delivery treatment to the stakeholders in a manner that society previously prescribed as acceptable. All companies, especially the Oil Sands Development Corporation, must comply with Canada’s prescribed corporate social responsibility provisions. Further, the entities’ social responsibility is divided in two major areas. One area is economic in nature. The business entities’ survival is grounded on generating revenues. The revenues must be high enough to generate net profits. If the company does not generate a net profit in the current or future accounting period, there is high probability that the entities may file for bankruptcy. The usual step for a bankrupt company is to close shop. Next, another major area of the entities’ social responsibility is environmental responsibility (Hopkins, 2012). The nation compulsorily requires all companies to implement all environmental protection law provisions. The companies must not pollute the environment. The entities should never pollute the waters of our plants (rivers, lakes, and oceans). In addition, the entities should not pollute the air. The factories must build high smoke stacks to reduce polluting the community air. Further, one environment-friendly news report divulged one Canadian company’s blatant violation of its corporate social responsibility (Wingrove, 2013). Wingrove observed the Oil Sands Development Company’s business activities continue to pollute the nearby Alberta lakes. The Canadian government reiterated that Canadian companies can set up their business to generate profits. However, the Canadian government reiterates all locally set up companies should not violate any of Canada’s environmental protection statutes. The continuing pollution of the nearby Alberta lakes will snap out the life of the current and future marine life. The marine life includes the fishes and other

Leadership and Management of Strategic Change Assignment

Leadership and Management of Strategic Change - Assignment Example The paper tells that at the three main levels, strategic leadership is tasked with providing the scope and direction that is needed to assist in the pursuit of success in the organization. A key component of this success is derived from the effective management of continuous change through improving both people and procedures. Therefore, all the executives, as well as the managers, should possess the necessary instruments needed for strategic creation and execution while being ready to use the same instruments rapidly. Managing in an environment that is characterized by change and uncertainty needs leaders who are strategic con steadily maintain a sense of direction while at the same time developing ownership objectives as well as goals within the groups they are supposed to lead. The blend between an analytical perception that is used to develop processes for a winning strategy and a human element that enables the managers to create effectively, inspired and accomplished teams is im portant to the success of strategic leadership. More often than not, strategic leadership fails since the right equilibrium between the two perspectives is not achieved. In the event that there is a high concentration on the execution as well as the outcome while disregarding the human dimension, the leader will be perceived as a taskmaster and the individuals who are demoralized will not have the motivation to perform. If the leaders pay more attention to the human dimension and forget about the process and the work ethic, then the situation at work will be similar to one at a country club which is a good place to work with very little distinction about what people are supposed to do. Therefore, successful strategic leadership should be carefully balanced between analytics and the process development as well as the human dimension.

3 Ps Self-Assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

3 Ps Self-Assessment - Assignment Example These were due to unavoidable circumstances that were explained to respective lectures in advance. My interpersonal relations with both lecturers and students have also been good without even a single reported case of conflict. This is because I always respect people’s opinions and personality and I have excellent communication skills towards approaching people (Lambert, p. 3-6). My level of preparation for class work has similarly been outstanding with a 46 points rating. This includes my readiness with respect to assignments, presentations, and class readings. My assignments and presentations have always been done and reviewed in time, before submission time, a fact that has facilitated my excellence as I have always had time for revision and editing of my work. Both lectures and classmates have also recommended my preparedness for class readings (Lambert, p. 3-6). My participation is similarly highly rated at 45 points. While I am always ready to participate in discussions and class exercises, I normally allow other people to participate and only engage when called upon. The relatively lower score in my participation can be explained by my passive nature (Lambert, p.

The History of the “Jim Crow” System Essay Example for Free

The History of the â€Å"Jim Crow† System Essay For most white Americans, the demise of the Reconstruction in 1877 was not an occasion for mourning. Rather, it was an opportunity to reestablish the inferior status of the Negro in American society. The period from the 1880s to the 1960s was therefore characterized with the emergence of laws that implemented segregation between blacks and whites (Carlisle and Golson 214). These edicts, collectively known as the â€Å"Jim Crow† system, ultimately brought about a way of life that relegated blacks to the status of second-class citizens. â€Å"Jim Crow† originally referred to a minstrel character that was created in 1830 by a white actor named Thomas Dartmouth â€Å"Daddy† Rice. According to legend, Rice was able to come up with the concept of â€Å"Jim Crow† after chancing upon an elderly African-American man who was suffering from rheumatism. Drawing inspiration from the old man’s appearance and movements, he went onstage sporting blackface makeup and danced a ridiculous jig while singing the lyrics to the song Jump Jim Crow (Sotiropoulos 20). But Rice never used â€Å"Jim Crow† as a racial slur – he often portrayed the character in black song and dance as a trickster figure (Sotiropoulos 21). â€Å"Jim Crow,† however, eventually became an ethnic affront when the minstrelsy evolved into an overwhelmingly racist form of popular entertainment. In the decades before and after the Civil War, pro-slavery factions used minstrel shows as a means of expressing their opposition to abolitionist sentiment. As a result, the minstrelsy ended up spawning several caricatures that embodied bigoted misconceptions about blacks. â€Å"Jim Crow,† for example, was made to resemble â€Å"Sambo,† the â€Å"plantation darky† stereotype that was formed in order to give whites the assurance that blacks were contented with being plantation workers. There were likewise instances when â€Å"Jim Crow† was depicted as â€Å"Zip Coon,† an urban buffoon who derided free blacks and therefore implied that blacks were unfit for freedom and urban life (Sotiropoulos 21). It was not until the 1880s that â€Å"Jim Crow† was associated with legal forms of discrimination against blacks. Many white Southerners greatly resented the Reconstruction (1863-1877) because the latter provided small possibilities for racial equality between blacks and whites. The passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments emancipated blacks from slavery and turned them into American citizens with enforceable rights. The Civil Rights Act of 1875, meanwhile, guaranteed blacks admission to public facilities (Norgren and Nanda 46). Thus, at the end of the Reconstruction, many Southern whites sought to return blacks as close to slave status as possible. After the 1876 presidential elections, a new set of laws were created with the objective of segregating blacks and discriminating against them in every aspect of political, economic and social life. The â€Å"Jim Crow† system reminded blacks of their inferiority to whites from the cradle to the grave (Norgren and Nanda 46). Several state constitutions passed in the South between 1890 and 1900 mandated literacy tests, property qualifications and poll taxes for electors, disenfranchising many black voters as a result (Earle 98). Certain laws also kept blacks separate from whites in public establishments such as schools, parks, hospitals, mass transportation, theaters and even courts (Norgren and Nanda 47). Nineteenth-century efforts to put an end to the â€Å"Jim Crow† system proved to be futile. This was mainly because the United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the laws that made up the â€Å"Jim Crow† system (Norgren and Nanda 47). The landmark case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) is generally believed to be responsible for the legitimization of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. Homer A. Plessy, a light-skinned black man, was arrested in New Orleans after refusing to ride in a â€Å"blacks only† rail car. After he was convicted in Louisiana, he appealed to the Supreme Court, which ruled that the segregation of blacks and whites was constitutional provided that both races received equal treatment (Earle 98). Although racially discriminatory laws were already commonplace in the Antebellum Era and the Reconstruction, the â€Å"separate but equal† ruling of the Supreme Court in the aforementioned lawsuit legalized exclusion from juries, segregation, disenfranchisement, anti-miscegenation acts and lynching (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 157). In the process, blacks were transformed into second-class citizens – they enjoyed the same rights and privileges as whites, but only to a limited extent. For instance, as long as a black man and a white man are riding the same train, the black man has no right to complain even if he was assigned to a dirty cabin while his white fellow passenger was ushered into a clean one. The law, after all, guaranteed blacks equality, but not integration, with whites. The â€Å"equality but not integration† philosophy of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system eventually became a justification for extralegal violence against blacks. In the 1890s, many cotton plantations in the South closed down due to the scarcity in slave labor and fierce competition from Egypt, India, California and the Southwest (Schultz 17). Because cotton was the lifeblood of the Southern economy, the latter inevitably collapsed as a result. Once-wealthy plantation owners suddenly found themselves competing with emancipated blacks even over menial jobs such as sharecropping and construction. As the crisis went on, many whites started to view blacks with resentment and hostility – they accused the blacks of stealing jobs from them (Booker 167). Many whites were appalled that the blacks were passing themselves off as whites by competing with them for jobs and establishing their own institutions like churches and mutual aid societies. Furthermore, the whites felt that the blacks were attempting to elevate themselves at their expense. It should no longer come as a surprise, therefore, if extralegal violence became the primary weapon in which the â€Å"Jim Crow† system was enforced. The threatened and desperate whites viewed brutality as the only means of â€Å"putting blacks in their place† (Harrell, Gaustad, Boles, Griffith, Miller and Woods 537). Angry white mobs stormed the Southern countryside and subjected every black person they could find to beatings, mutilation and even castration. Lynching, however, became increasingly widespread as the economic crisis went on. During the 1890s, the average number of blacks that were lynched in the South was about two per week. So popular was lynching in the South that it became a public spectacle that drew large crowds, including women and children. There were even cases wherein refreshments were served and souvenirs, including the victim’s body parts, were sold or stolen (Harrell, Gaustad, Boles, Griffith, Miller and Woods 537). Many Southern whites overwhelmingly approved of the public lynching of blacks – they viewed the latter as a demonstration of the white community’s power and a means of preserving the racial order. Moreover, blacks during the 1890s were depicted as criminal and savage â€Å"Brutes† who preyed on white women. Thus, lynching was also seen as a way of preserving the â€Å"racial purity† of the whites. Rebecca Latimer Felton, a women’s rights advocate and prohibitionist from Georgia, once claimed, â€Å"If it takes lynching to protect women’s dearest possession from drunken, ravening human beasts, then I say lynch a thousand a week if it becomes necessary† (Harrell, Gaustad, Boles, Griffith, Miller and Woods 537). Because of the institutionalized racism and violence that was associated with the â€Å"Jim Crow† system, blacks had no choice but to live with it for almost 80 years. In the process, they had to accept the erroneous belief that whites were superior to them. It did not matter whether or not they truly believed this premise – defying the whites in any form could cost them their jobs, properties or even their lives. Stetson Kennedy (1959/1990), author of The Jim Crow Guide, claimed that the â€Å"Jim Crow† system was based on the following rationalizations: First, whites were superior to blacks in all important ways. This superiority included, but was not limited to, intelligence, morality and civilized behavior. Second, sexual relations between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel that would destroy America. Simply put, intermarriage between the two races would â€Å"threaten† American racial â€Å"purity† (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). Third, sexual relations between blacks and whites would produce a mongrel which would destroy America. Biracial individuals were another â€Å"threat† to American racial â€Å"purity† because they served as living reminders of how blacks â€Å"corrupted† the cultural homogeneity of the whites. Lastly, violence must be used to keep Blacks at the bottom of the racial hierarchy if necessary. Discrimination, imprisonment under false charges and even lynching were acceptable as long as these safeguarded whites from black â€Å"brutes† (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). Kennedy (1959/1990) added that blacks had to observe these simple rules when conversing with whites: First, never assert or even intimate that a white person is telling a lie. Second, never impute dishonorable intentions to a white person. Third, never suggest that a white person is from an inferior class. Fourth, never lay claim to, or overly demonstrate, superior knowledge or intelligence. Fifth, never curse a white person (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 157-158). Sixth, never laugh derisively at a white person. To do otherwise was to imply that he or she was of inferior character. Lastly, never comment upon the appearance of a white female. Such a gesture implied lust, which would eventually lead to rape (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 157-158). In order to show how racism was deeply entrenched in American society at the time of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system, the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia provided the following etiquette standards: A black male could not offer his hand (to shake hands) with a White man because it implied being socially equal. A black man was also not allowed to offer his hand or any other part of his body to a white woman, because he risked being accused of rape. Blacks and whites were not supposed to eat together. If blacks and whites did eat together, they must be kept separate from each other by some sort of partition and whites were to be served first (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). Under no circumstance was a Black male to offer to light the cigarette of a White female. This was a gesture that implied intimacy. Blacks were not allowed to show public affection toward one another in public, especially kissing. The whites considered this intimation to be very offensive (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). Blacks were introduced to whites, not the other way around. For example: â€Å"Mr. Peters (the white person), this is Charlie (the black person), that I spoke to you about. † Whites did not use courtesy titles of respect when referring to blacks (i. e. , Mr. , Mrs. , Miss, Sir or Ma’am). Instead, blacks were called by their first names (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). Blacks, on the other hand, had to use courtesy titles when referring to whites. Blacks were never allowed to call whites by their first names. If a black person rode in a car driven by a white person, the former had to seat in the back seat or the back of the truck. White motorists had the right-of-way at all intersections (Schramm-Pate and Jeffries 158). By the beginning of the 20th century, the â€Å"Jim Crow† system had finally succeeded in its quest to implement racial segregation in the South. Intermarriages were strictly forbidden, while schools, trains, streetcars, hotels, barbershops, restaurants and theaters had signs that indicated whether or not they accommodated blacks (Hill and Jones 41). Black workers were excluded from high-paying jobs and unions and were instead confined to low-paying jobs, thus creating a cheap labor pool which could be exploited by white entrepreneurs. Akin to the period of slavery, the â€Å"Jim Crow† system created a status quo in which blacks were accorded a lowly status simply because they were an â€Å"inferior† race (Hill and Jones 42). In the early 20th century, education was probably the â€Å"Jim Crow† system’s most effective means of subjugating the blacks. Although public education was available to black children living in the South, the region had few effective schools. Many of the South’s black schoolchildren had no school buildings and met for class in churches, lodges, homes or barns, served by privies and without electricity – a trend which continued into the 1940s (Rose 251). Black teachers, meanwhile, had to make do with faulty castoffs from white schools (Rose 252). These conditions instilled in black children a lifelong aversion to learning. Indeed, what is the point of going to school when little can be learned there? It would be much better for the children to just stay home and help their parents in the cotton fields. Another possible factor behind their lack of motivation to stay in school is the hegemonic belief that whites are superior to blacks. Growing up, black children in the South were constantly taught by their elders to be subservient to whites (Rose 254). As a result, they would be discouraged in pursuing an education, because even a highly-educated black person would still be a â€Å"slave† in the eyes of the whites. But not all blacks opted to live with the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. Prior to the modern civil rights movement, many blacks have already protested against the â€Å"Jim Crow† system of domination. Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth, for instance, openly criticized racial segregation in public facilities in the North during and after the period of slavery. From 1900 to 1906, meanwhile, many blacks in most major cities of the South staged boycotts against racial segregation in streetcars (Hill and Jones 43). Even black women participated in the struggle for racial equality in the South. Black journalist and newspaper editor Ida B. Wells, for example, led major campaigns against lynching. During the last decade of the 19th century, many other black women formed local and national organizations that called for both the end of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system and for black women’s rights (Hill and Jones 43). Black women cannot be blamed for their extreme dedication to putting an end to the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. The latter had very detrimental effects on their political, economic and social status. Foremost among these negative upshots are the â€Å"Jezebel† and the â€Å"Matriarch stereotypes. The Jezebel image depicted black women as sexually promiscuous, lustful and immoral. Historians argue that the Jezebel caricature was formed in order to rationalize the rape and forced breeding of black women – black women deserved to be subjected to sexual atrocities because they were â€Å"immoral† (West 98). The â€Å"Matriarch† image, meanwhile, presented black women as self-sufficient and independent women who have taken over the leadership role of men in the family. Although this stereotype is a possible survival strategy, it is not without a darker side. The â€Å"Matriarch† caricature was a probable scapegoat to the problems hounding blacks, such as poor academic performance of black youths and high incarceration rates. Simply put, her unwillingness to conform to traditional female roles was blamed as the cause of lower moral values and poverty (West 99). Given these negative images that whites associated with black women at the height of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system, it should no longer come as a surprise if black women were politically, economically and socially marginalized during this period. Between 1900 and 1920, at least 2 million blacks migrated to the more industrialized North. Black women, however, were limited to domestic and agricultural work – mechanized steam laundries, meat slaughtering, packing houses and crab and peanut factories. By the 1930s, about 60% of employed black women were engaged in domestic work (Parker 47). During the Great Depression, black women in the South were excluded from many stable job opportunities offered by the New Deal. Although black women in the North fared better, employers perceived them as expendable members of the labor force. For one, they received smaller wages than their white counterparts. In addition, they were the first to be laid off when an enterprise closed down (Parker 47). The period from 1909 to 1910 is considered as a watershed in the fight against the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. It was during this time that one of the most important progressive black organizations, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), was formed. The primary goal of the NAACP was to discredit the legality of â€Å"Jim Crow† laws and practices. Meanwhile, its official organ, The Crisis, edited by W. E. B. Du Bois, raised oppositional consciousness among blacks by challenging the ideology of white supremacy (Hill and Jones 43). The black protest movement became even more militant during the Great Depression. At the height of the latter, many black workers were either laid off from or denied work in favor of white workers. Those who were able to find work, on the other hand, were paid very low wages and were subjected to abysmal working conditions. Thus, many progressive black groups engaged in grassroots organizing in order to fight racism in the government, corporations and labor unions. Furthermore, the scope of black activism during the Great Depression was no longer confined to the South – even blacks from the North started to organize themselves as well (Jackson 6). At the start of the Great Depression, blacks were excluded from most trade unions in the American Federation of Labor (AFL). But in 1933 and 1934, the United Mine Workers and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union began to accept blacks into their respective folds. By 1935, the predominantly black Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters had already achieved recognition as a legitimate labor union. The Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union signed up thousands of blacks in the most antiunion parts of the South. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was formed in 1935 as a splinter group of the AFL, mobilized black workers in steel, automobile and meatpacking industries (Jackson 8). The issue of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system was temporarily set aside with the advent of World War II. Wartime labor demands gave black workers new employment opportunities, such as better wages, safe working conditions and security of tenure (Horton n. pag. ). With most white males fighting in the war, businesses had no choice but to tap into the country’s pool of black workers. As the country’s number of black workers was not enough for all of the nation’s enterprises, employers offered attractive compensation packages in order to attract as many employees as they could. But whatever optimism blacks had during the war were shattered with the arrival of the white soldiers. In the postwar era, blacks returned to their old status as second-class citizens. They were once again subjected to segregation and low-paying jobs. The prevalence of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system in the South forced at least 1. 5 million blacks to migrate to other parts of the US during the 1940s and the early 1950s (Horton n. pag. ). But the postwar era was likewise the period that was characterized with the demise of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. The Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) that racially segregated facilities were unconstitutional because these violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the Constitution (Jackson 530). The Supreme Court’s decision in Brown was an important victory for the anti-â€Å"Jim Crow† movement – the former nullified the â€Å"separate but equal† premise on which the ruling in Plessy was based (Fine 503). The blacks finally had a chance to attain equality with the whites that was based on actual integration with them. But the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown was met with violent reprisals from racist organizations. Many white Southerners staunchly defended the system of racial privilege and even used violence and intimidation in order to forestall change. Various racist and terrorist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and the White Citizens’ Councils, resurfaced in order to spread fear among the populace. White politicians and other leaders, meanwhile, retaliated through very adamant statements of racist resistance. In the end, it was still the people who were at the losing end of this battle – public schools in Prince Edward County in central Virginia were kept closed for five years rather than undergo racial integration (Healey 226). The blacks, however, were already tired of living in fear. A seamstress named Rosa Parks was arrested and jailed in Montgomery, Alabama on December 1, 1955 after she refused to give up her seat in the city bus to a white male passenger. Her arrest and detention sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott; a year-long boycott of the city’s bus lines that was led by the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Dr. King later founded the Civil Rights Movement, a protest movement that fought racism through peaceful street demonstrations (Healey 226). Although its members experienced brutal repression and violence at the hands of the police and terrorist groups like the KKK, the Civil Rights Movement finally succeeded in putting an end to the â€Å"Jim Crow† system. In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a law which banned discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin or gender. This directive was applicable to all public facilities including parks, municipal swimming pools and businesses, as well as to any program that received federal aid. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was soon followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which banned practices that had been used to prevent blacks from registering to vote, such as literacy tests and whites-only primaries (Healey 227). The existence of the â€Å"Jim Crow† system is one of the most shameful periods in American history. Just because the blacks were regarded as an inferior race, certain laws were created in order to segregate them and discriminate against them in every aspect of political, economic and social life. Worse, the enforcement of these laws through violence was even encouraged. Although the blacks were supposedly equal to the whites, this equality existed as long as they did interact with each other. It would be fair to say, therefore, that the black protest movements against the â€Å"Jim Crow† system added credibility to the American value of egalitarianism. If not for the black activists who fought against racism, the said value would only be applicable to the whites even to this day. The US would have no right to parade itself as the bastion of democracy and human rights. After all, how can it say that it is a champion of democracy and human rights if racism was rampant in its own backyard? Works Cited Booker, Christopher Brian. â€Å"I Will Wear No Chain! † A Social History of African- American Males. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. Carlisle, Rodney P. , and J. Geoffrey Golson. Colonial America from the Settlement to the Revolution. Oxford: ABC-CLIO, 2006. Earle, Jonathan Halperin. The Routledge Atlas of African-American History. New York: Routledge, 2000. Fine, Michelle. â€Å"The Power of the Brown v. Board of Education Decision: Theorizing Threats to Sustainability. † American Psychologist September 2004: 59. Apollo Library. EBSCO. University of Phoenix Library. 12 April 2009 http://swtuop. museglobal. com/muse/servlet/MusePeer. Harrell, David Edwin, Edwin S. Gaustad, John B. Boles, Sally Foreman Griffith, Randall M. Miller, and Randall Bennett Woods. Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People, Volume 2: From 1865. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005. Healey, Joseph F. Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Class: The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change. 4th ed. London: Pine Forge Press, 2005. Hill, Herbert, and James E. Jones. Race in America: The Struggle for Equality. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993. Horton, Lois E. A History of the African American People: The History, Traditions Culture of African Americans. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997. Jackson, Walter A. Gunnar Myrdal and Americas Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938-1987. Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1994. Jackson, John P. â€Å"The Scientific Attack on Brown v. Board of Education, 1954-1964. † American Psychologist September 2004: 59. Apollo Library. EBSCO. University of Phoenix Library. 11 April 2009 http://swtuop. museglobal. com/muse/servlet/MusePeer. Norgren, Jill, and Serena Nanda. American Cultural Pluralism and Law. 3rd ed. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. Parker, Patricia Sue. Race, Gender, and Leadership: Re-envisioning Organizational Leadership from the Perspectives of African American Women Executives. New York: Routledge, 2006. Rose, Anne C. â€Å"The Discovery of Southern Childhoods: Psychology and the Transformation of Schooling in the Jim Crow South. † History of Psychology 2007: 10. Apollo Library. EBSCO. University of Phoenix Library. 10 April 2009 http://swtuop.museglobal. com/muse/servlet/MusePeer. Schramm-Pate, Susan, and Rhonda Baynes Jeffries. Grappling with Diversity: Readings on Civil Rights Pedagogy and Critical Multiculturalism. London: SUNY Press, 2008. Schultz, Mark. The Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2005. Sotiropoulos, Karen. Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. West, Caroline Marie. Violence in the Lives of Black Women: Battered, Black and Blue. New York: Haworth Press, 2003.

Edible History Of Humanity By Tom Standage History Essay

Edible History Of Humanity By Tom Standage History Essay Book report on an edible history of humanity by Tom Standage. Tom Standages book regarding edible history of humanity gives us numerous pictures of looking at the past. The book approaches history in a different way altogether: as a sequence of changes caused, influenced or enabled by food. Throughout history, food has not only provided sustenance but has also acted as the catalyst of societal organization, social change, economic expansion, military conflict, geopolitical competition and industrial development. Since the time of prehistory to present, the stories of these changes form a story that encompasses the entire human history. The foods first transformative role was the basis for entire civilizations. The taking in of agriculture enabled new settled lifestyle and put mankind on the path to the modern world. However, the staple crops that aided the first civilizations hardly and the wheat in the near east, rice and millet in Russia, potatoes and maize in America were not simply revealed by chance. Instead, they came out through a multifaceted process of co-evolution because preferred traits were chosen and propagated by the early farmers. These crops are in effect, development; intentionally cultivated technologies that existed only as a result of human intervention. Adoption of agriculture as a story is the narration of how early genetic engineers came up with powerful and new tools that made progress itself possible. In the process man changed plants and eventually the same plants in turn transformed people. By offering the platform through which civilizations could be founded, food then acted as a social organization tool, helping to structure and shape complex societies that came up later. The religious, political and economic structures of the early society, right from hunter-gatherers to the very first civilizations were based on systems of food production and allocation. The production of agricultural food surpluses as well as the coming up of irrigation systems and communal food storage fostered political centralization with agricultural fertility rituals developing into state religions and food becoming a medium of taxation and payment; feasts were used in garnering influence and show status; food handouts were used in defining and refining power structures. Allover the ancient world before money was invented, food was a sign of wealth and ability to control food was power. With the emergence of civilizations in various parts of the world, food aided to connect them together. Food-trade routes acted as inter-boundary communication networks that improved not just commercial exchange but religious and cultural exchange as well. Spice routes that spanned the ancient world resulted in cross cultural fertilization in fields which were diverse just like the field of architecture, religion and science. The first geographers began to take interest in people and customs from far places and compiled the first efforts at world maps. By far the biggest change caused by food trade was as a result of European need to avoid the Arab spice domination. The result of this was the revelation of a new world, establishment of first colonial outposts by the European nations and opening of maritime trade routes between Asia, Europe and America. As European nations tried to build global empires, the next big shift in human history was aided by food, a flow in economic development during industrialization. Potatoes and sugar just like the steam engine underpinned the process of industrial revolution. Sugar production on plantation on the West Indies was considered the first prototype of the industrial process that mainly relied on slave labor. Meanwhile potatoes overcame the first suspicion among the European as a staple food that yielded more calories than cereals from a given area of land. Together, potatoes and sugar offered cheap sustenainace for the workers who worked in new factories in the industrial era. In Britain for instance where the process first started, the upsetting question whether the future of the country lies in industry or agriculture was decisively and unexpectedly resolved by the Irish potato famine of the mid 19th century. Using food as war weapon is timeless; however large scale military wars of the 18th and 19th centuries elevated it to a new level. Food played a vital role in determining the consequences of the two conflicts that defined the USA, revolutionary war of 18th and 19th centuries as well as the civil war of 1860s. Meanwhile, the rise and fall of Napoleon closely connected his capacity to feed his large population of armies. The 20th century mechanization of warfare gave the impression that for the first time in history, feeding machines with ammunition and fuel became an important factor than feeding soldiers. However, food took a new twist, as an ideological weapon during the era of cold war between communism and capitalism, and finally helped to determine the result of the conflict. In the modern society food has become a battle filed for other issues, including globalization, development and trade. During the twentieth century the application of industrial and scientific to agriculture brought about dramatic increase in food supply and the corresponding increase in the world population. The green revolution led to social as well as environmental problems. However, without it there would have been a lot of famine in much of the developing world in 1970s. By making sure that food supply grows rapidly than the population, the green revolution opened the way for the amazingly rapid industrialization in Asia as the century came to an end. Because people in industrial societies consider having a smaller number of children compared to those in the agricultural societies, this in turn the peak of the human population near the end of the 21st century is now on sight. The tales of many personal foodstuffs, traditions and food related customs and the coming up of a particular nation cuisines, have already been narrated. Less focus has been given to the question of foods world-historical significance. This responsibility does not assert that any single has the key to understanding history; nor does it try to give a brief account of the whole history of food or the whole worlds history. It rather draws on a range of disciplines that include genetics, anthropology, genetics, economics, ethno botany and archaeology. It focuses especially on intersections between world history food histories. Asking a simple question; which foods have offered the most in terms of shaping the modern world and in which way? By taking a long term historical dimension also gives a new way to shed light on modern debates about food, like the argument surrounding the genetically modified organisms. The link between poverty and food, coming up of local food movements, use of p lants to make biofuels, effectiveness of food as a tool of mobilizing political support for a number of causes, and the widely accepted way of reducing the environmental impact of modern agricultural methods.

Alkylation Process For Production Of Motor Fuels Environmental Sciences Essay

Alkylation Process For Production Of Motor Fuels Environmental Sciences Essay Alkylation is a process for chemically combining isobutane with light olefinic hydrocarbons, typically C3 and C4 olefins, (e.g. propylene, butylene) in the presence of an acid catalyst, usually sulphuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. The product, alkylate (an isoparaffin) has a high-octane value and is blended into motor and aviation gasoline to improve the antiknock value of the fuel. The light olefins are most commonly available from the catalytic crackers. Alkylate is one of the best gasoline blending components because it is a clean burning, very low sulphur component, with no olefinic or aromatic compounds and with high octane and low vapour pressure characteristics. 1. Introduction 1.1 Alkylation Alkylation is a process for chemically combining isobutane with light olefinic hydrocarbons, typically C3 and C4 olefins, (e.g.propylene, butylene) in the presence of an acid catalyst, usually sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or hydrofluoric acid (HF). The product, alkylate (an isoparaffin) has a high-octane value and is blended into motor and aviation gasoline to improve the antiknock value of the fuel. The light olefins are most commonly available from the catalytic crackers. Alkylate is one of the best gasoline blending components because it is a clean burning, very low sulphur component, with no olefinic or aromatic compounds and with high octane and low vapour pressure characteristics [1]. 1.2 Advances in alkylation technologies The alkylation process will continue to be a favoured technology for producing clean fuels.MTBE(methyl-tert-butyl ethanol) phase out in the USA, implementation of the latest european specifications, enlargement of the EU and adoption of cleaner fuels specifications worldwide are major drivers for refiners requiring more, high octane, gasoline blending components that do not contain aromatics, benzene, olefins and sulphur. Also as the types of gasoline engine in use worldwide become more uniform, there will be a general decline in the markets for low octane gasoline requiring more components to be upgraded to high quality fuel. Table  1 shows the major technical and mechanical advances. Reactor design improvements are one of the most important developments. The early plants used a pump and time-tank reactor system which was designed to mix the reactants intimately with the catalyst and to remove the exothermic heat of reaction for temperature control [2] .It is required that for the desired reactions to continue with the removal of the unwanted reactions, good mixing of higher concentrations of dissolved isobutane in the acid phase is necessary. Since the early reactors were inadequate in this respect, new reactor designs evolved which improved the degree of acid-hydrocarbon contacting. The importance of good temperature control was also realized in the course of time as commercial experience was gained. Regulating the temperature of the reaction mixture in the suitable range was essential for good alkylation. Inadequate temperature control resulted in decreased alkylate yields and octanes and increased a cid consumption. Therefore, to avoid these penalties the new reactor designs included improved temperature control techniques as well as improved mixing. The two most commonly used reactor systems which grew out of the reactor development work for H2SO4 alkylation are the Stratford Engineering Companys Stratco contactor and the M. W. Kellogg Corporation Cascade reactor were bubbled up through liquid HF. There have been improvements in the preparation of feed and this has given rise to growth in alkylation technology [4, 5]. The ability to design better fractionators has made higher quality feedstocks available, and feed pretreatment facilities have been developed to remove water, mercaptans, sulfides, and diolefins effectively. Bauxite treating, hot water washing, and electrostatic precipitation are some of the significant developments which have improved product quality and reduced fouling and corrosion in downstream equipment. The sulfuric acid recovery process (SARP), developed to reduce the acid consumption in H2SO4 alkylation units was another contribution to alkylation technology. In this process the spent acid from an alkylation unit reacts with a portion of the olefin feed to form dialkylsulfates. The dialkylsulfates are extracted from the reaction mixture with isobutane, and the extract is charged to the alkylation unit. Table  I: Advances in alkylation technology [3] 1) Improved reactors A) better mixing B) better temperature control 2) Recognition and control of operating variables 3) Improved feed preparation 4) Improved product treatment 5) Sulfuric acid recovery process 6) Catalyst promoters 7) Mechanical and construction improvement 2. Types of alkylation processes The alkylation process can be divided into the sulfuric alkylation process and the hydrofluoric acid alkylation process, indirect alkylation by acidic resin, indirect alkylation by solid phosphoric acid and olefin hydrogenation. 2.1. The sulphuric acid process This process uses sulphuric acid as the catalyst and its feedstock are propylene, butylene, amylene, and fresh isobutane. Feedstocks are fed into the reactor which is divided into zones, each containing sulfuric acid, isobutane and olefins feed. The reactor product contains hydrocarbon and acid phases which are split in the settler; the hydrocarbon phase is washed with caustic and hot water for pH control and then depropanized, deisobutanized, and debutanized. The alkylate product so formed can then be used for motor fuel blending or for producing aviation grade blends. The isobutane goes back to the feed. Figure  1: Acid catalyzed isobutene dimerization to 2,  4,  4-trimethyl-1-pentene and 2,  4,  4 ­trimethyl ­2-pentene by the standard Whitmore-type carbocation mechanism [3]. 2.2 The hydrofluoric acid process This process employs hydrofluoric acid as the catalyst. The two types of hydrofluoric acid alkylation process commonly used are the Philips and UOP (a Honeywell company) processes. While Philips uses a reactor/settler combination system, UOP uses two reactors with separate settlers [2]. The major differences between sulfuric and hydrofluoric alkylations (HF) are temperature and acid consumption. Sulfuric alkylation requires refrigeration to maintain a low reactor temperature. The acid consumption rate for sulfuric alkylation is over a hundred times that of HF [8]. Figure  2: Aliphatic alkylation mechanism with hydrofluoric acid as catalyst: (a-b) initiation by addition of HF to the olefin and in the case of a sec.  butylcation, hydride  transfer from isobutane to produce a tert.  butyl cation, (c) olefin addition to the tert-butyl cation, and (d) hydride transfer form isobutane to yield alkylate and regenerate the tert-butylcation [3]. Table  II: Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number (MON) of alkylates typically produced by HF alkylation of isobutane with various olefins [3]. Olefin feed RON RON + MON / 2 MON Propene 91 92 89.5 90.0 1-butene 94.4 91.6 2-butene 97.8 94.6 Isobutene 95.9 93.4 Pentenes 90 91 93.4 n-pentenes 82.5 Table  III: Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number (MON) of alkylates produced by H2SO4 alkylation of isobutane with various olefins at 9-10  °C, 94-95 % H2SO4 concentration, and isobutane:olefin ratio of 7-9:1 [3] Olefin feed RON MON Propene 89.0 87.1 n-butene 97.8 93.9 Isobutene 93.2 90.3 n-pentene 91.0 88.0 Isopentene 91.2 88.8 2.3 Indirect alkylation by acidic resin This process employs the use of a polar solvent to limit the activity of the acid resin in order to improve the dimerization selectivity. High conversion of isobutene can be obtained at low temperature usually less than 100  °C [8, 9 12]. On an industrial scale, the recovery of the polar solvent (tertiary butyl alcohol) could serve to regulate the product distribution and also to reduce the amount of oligomer formed during production to less than 10 % [8]. The alkylate produced from this technology has a research octane number (RON) of 99  Ã‚ ­Ã‚  101 and motor octane number (MON) of 96  Ã‚  99. 2.4 Indirect alkylation by solid phosphoric acid The principle of indirect alkylation by solid phosphoric acid (SPA) is the same as by acidic resin catalysis; the difference being that dimerization over SPA follows an ester-based mechanism [13]. Heavy oligomer formation is mechanistically limited, [10] because the strength of the phosphoric acid ester bond decreases with increasing carbon number of the olefin. Indirect alkylation by SPA is carried out in two steps: selective dimerization of isobutene (from C4 streams) to form diisobutene; followed by hydrogenation to form the saturated product isooctane. Selectivity problems and catalyst deactivation hinder the isobutene dimerization reaction. Because this reaction decides the quality and properties of the alkylate formed, it is a crucial step in this process. The C4 stream, consisting mainly of isobutene, n-butane, isobutene, and n-butenes, is fed to the dimerization reactor, where isobutene is dimerized selectively in the presence of SPA catalyst. The reaction is exothermic, and heat must be removed to avoid temperature rises that can lead to the formation of undesired oligomers. These oligomers have relatively high molecular weights and boiling points and are not suitable as gasoline blends; they also rapidly deactivate the catalyst. Depending on the catalyst, an appropriate solvent may be needed to increase the selectivity toward the dimers. At higher operating temperatures the isobutene derived alkylate quality quickly deteriorates due to trimerization and cracking [11]. Propene forms a stronger ester bond with the phosphoric acid than the butenes, and it will become the dominant carbocation source [12]. The product stream from the reactor is fed to a distillation column, where dimerized and heavy products are separated from the unreacted C4 components and solvent. The dimer is then saturated in a separate reactor to form alkylates in the presence of a hydrogenation catalyst. In order to obtain alkylate quality hydrogenated products from an n-butene rich, isobutene lean feed, the reaction temperature should be less than 160  °C and the feed should not contain more than 5 % propene or 10 % pentenes. 3. Flow diagrams of direct and indirect alkylation process Figure  3: Block flow diagrams of the direct alkylation (HF and H2SO4 catalysed alkylation) configurations evaluated [3]. Flow diagram  1: This is the base case for direct alkylation, using a straight run Iron-Based High Temperature Fischer-Tropsch (Fe-HTFT) C4 feed. There is little isobutane in the straight run feed, which constrains the alkylate yield. Flow diagram  2: In order to overcome the constraint imposed by the low straight run isobutane content of C4 feed, a hydroisomerization unit is included in this two-step flow diagram to convert the straight run n-butane to isobutane. The hydroisomerization unit has an internal recycle, with an overall high isobutane yield. Although the alkylate yield may have been considerably improved compared to the base case, most of the C4 olefins have not been converted. Flow diagram  3: The ratio of paraffins to olefins necessary for direct alkylation can be balanced by hydrogenating some of the C4 olefins to C4 paraffins in order to increase the alkylate yield. Flow diagram  4: The alkylate yield may be further increased by using propene as the alkylating olefin. Propene is more abundant than the C4 hydrocarbons in straight run HTFT feed, which implies that all the hydrocarbons can be hydrogenated and hydroisomerized to isobutane for alkylation with propene. In this case an alkylate yield above 100 % based on the C4 feed can be obtained, but at lower octane number than with C4 material only. Figure  4: Block flow diagrams of the indirect alkylation (acidic resin and solid phosphoric acid dimerization) configurations evaluated [3]. Flow diagram  5: It consists of acid catalyzed dimerization followed by hydrogenation. The direct conversion of isobutene in straight run HTFT syncrude with an acidic catalyst has a low alkylate yield (8 %), since only 8 % of the C4 olefins are isobutene. However, this alkylate has an octane number of almost 100. Flow diagram  6: By use of skeletal isomerization, the alkylate quality and yield of n-butenes to isobutene can be improved. The n-butene conversion in the case of acidic resin dimerization is very low, and it is best to isomerize all n-butenes to isobutene. This results in an alkylate yield of 81 %. 4 Product yield and quality In a fuels refinery there is an incentive to convert normally gaseous products into liquid transportation fuels. The quantity and the quality of the liquid fuel being produced are both important, and in terms of alkylate production, the quality is related to the octane number (ON) (1/2) RON + (1/2) MON) of the motor-gasoline. The investment economics is refinery dependent, with octane constrained refineries putting a premium on quality, while refineries with an unsaturated market putting a premium on volume. Table  IV: Alkylate yield and alkylate octane number calculated for the indirect alkylation flowschemes shown in figure  4 [3] s/n Dir.alkyl.fowscheme Alkyl.tech Alkyl.yld(m%C4) Oct.no.(1/2)RON+(1/2)MON 1 Base  case  straight  run HTFT HF H2SO4 2 2 94 96 2 Case  1  +  C4 hydroisomerisation HF H2SO4 21 20 94 96 3 Case  2  +  butane hydrogenation HF H2SO4 102 101 94 96 4 Case  3  +  propene alkylation HF H2SO4 197 189 91 88 The alkylate yield is based on the mass of alkylate produced per mass of total straight run high temperature Fisher Tropsch  C4 cut material. Table  V: Alkylate yield and alkylate octane number calculated for the indirect alkylation flowschemes shown in figure  3 [3] s/n Indir.  Alkyl.  flowscheme Dim.  tech Alkyl.  yld  (m%C4) Oct.no(RON+MON)/2 5 Base case straight run HTFT Acidic  resin SPA 8 72(90)b 99 87 6 Base case + skeletal isomerisation Acidic  resin SPA 81 85 99 99 The alkylate yield is based on the mass of alkylate produced per mass of total straight run high temperature Fischer-Tropsch  C4 cut material.b yield including coproduced kerosen 5 Environmental aspects The environmental burdens due to the treatment of free hydrofluoric acid (HF) losses from an alkylation unit cannot be overlooked. The reality is that hydrofluoric acid losses from the unit do occur through side-reactions, forming organic fluorides, which become entrained in product streams, and through direct entrainment of free HF in a heavy hydrocarbon waste stream [6, 7]. The environmental aspects associated with the liquid phase direct alkylation processes led to the development of solid acid direct alkylation. From an environmental stand point, indirect alkylation is preferred to direct alkylation and that flowscheme  5 (figure  4) is the most environmentally friendly [3]. 6 Conclusion It was found that the choice of technology depended on the different refining priorities, namely, the following: (a) Least complexity, (b) Highest alkylate yield 7 Literature [1] Encyclopedia of Earth Home page. http://www.eoearth.org/ article/alkylation_in_petroleum_refining (accessed Aug.30, 2010) [2] Albright, L.F.; Comparison of Alkylation Processes: Chem.Eng., 209, Oct.  10, 1996. [3] Wang, Y.; Subramaniam, B., 6874 ,Ind.Eng.Chem.Res., Vol.47,number  10, 2008. [4] Albright, L.F.;  ´Alkylation Processes Using Sulfuric Acid As Catalyst ´, Ibid, 143, Aug.  15, 1997. [5] De Klerk, A.;  ´Isomerisation of 1-butene to isobutene at low temperature, Ind.Eng.Chem.Res., 43, 6325, 2004. [6] Occupational Safety and Health Administration Homepage. http://www.osha.gov/ dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html (accessed Aug.31, 2010). [7] Warren, R.T.;  ´Alkylation and Isomerisation ´, oil and gas journal, vol 97, Issue  4, Jan.26, 1999. [8] UOP  Home  page. http://www.uop.com/objects/NPRASpr2003HFAlkyd.pdf / Article/advances in hydrofluoric (HF) acid catalyzed alkylation (accessed Sept.  14, 2010). [9] Kamath, R. S.; Qi, Z.; Sundmacher, K.; Aghalayam, P.; Mahajani,S. M.,  ´Process analysis for dimerization of isobutene by reactive distillation ´, Ind.Eng.Chem.Res. 45, 1575, 2006. [10] De Klerk, A.  ´Reactivity differences of octenes over solid phosphoric acid ´, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45, 578, 2006. [11] De Klerk, A.; Engelbrecht, D.J.; Boikanyo, H.  ´Oligomerization of Fischer-Tropsch olefins: effect of feed and operating conditions on hydrogenated motor-gasoline quality ´, Ind. Eng.Chem. Res. 43, 7449, 2004. [12] De Klerk, A.  ´Distillate production by oligomerization of Fischer-Tropsch olefins over solid phosphoric acid ´, Energy Fuels, 20, 439, 2006. De Klerk, A.;  ´Isomerisation of 1-butene to isobutene at low temperature ´, Ind.Eng.Chem.Res., 43, 6325, 2004. [13] Nelson, W.L., McGraw-Hill,New, petroleum refinery engineering third edition, p  660, 2003.

Organizational Behavior: Terminology and Concepts :: essays research papers

Organizational Behavior: Terminology and Concepts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Organizations today often encourage change to better the work environment. However, these changes often cause unwanted results which were not expected. This leads us to observe organizational behavior (OB) in hopes of minimizing unwanted and/or negative changes within an organization. Organizational behavior, organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, and organizational learning are all factors within an organization. These terms must first be defined in order to create a truly more efficient work environment. Centrix Financial ensures their growth and success by establishing an effective pattern which includes all of the factors of organizational behavior. Organizational behavior is defined as â€Å"the study of individuals and groups in organizations†. (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2003, p. 2) This definition helps us to better understand the organizational behavior which businesses practice on a day-to-day basis. At Centrix Financial, organizational behavior is helps managers implement new ideas. This is done by observing the changes which must be made in order to achieve a more productive and successful organization. Organizational culture is defined as â€Å"the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members. In the business setting, this system is often referred to as the corporate culture. Just as no two individual personalities are the same, no two organizational cultures are identical.† (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2003, p. 2) Communication within the organizational behavior helps with many aspects of an organization. First, open-communication allows employees to feel respected and valued because they can walk into their manager’s office and discuss any thoughts he or she may be have. Second, communication ensures that all problems are dealt with and not over-looked. The third benefit to communication is that new ideas can be generated from anyone who wishes to help out the organization.

intelligence Essays -- essays research papers

Intelligence is the level of competence, ability to learn or to some people it is how well an individual performs on an IQ test. The structure of intelligence is best subdivided into two significant categories. They are environmental and hereditary influences. Environmental differences can be divided into different factors. The deprivation model of social class and intelligence consists of three variables. These variables explain, in terms of environmental factors, development and performance which are correlated with social status. The first of these variables consists of the combination of birth order, nutrition, and prenatal care. Children who are first born, on average score better on mental tests. There is a definite higher number of first born children among higher socioeconomic groups as opposed to lower socioeconomic groups. According to Bruce Eckland, children of higher economic class tend to be brighter, on average, than children of lower economic groups (65). Both prenatal stress and malnutrition, impair development and are found much more frequently among lower socioeconomic classes. According to Philip E. Vernon, the fetus can have lack blood supply and growth of the fetus can be disturbed if the mother takes certain drugs or suffers from certain diseases. Severe stress on the mother can also be hazardous to the fetus (84). These conditions expressed are both genetic and or resulting from environmental conditions and are known to as constitutional factors. The second variable of the deprivation model which helps exhibit differences in performance is the cultural variable. It seems that lower socioeconomic classes experience a unique pattern of behavioral and psychological traits which impair development in children raised in these conditions. The last environmental variable that accounts for differences in the cognitive development is the social cultural variable. This variable includes deprivation which involves socially structured inequalities in education and other social opportunities for improving performance. Sidney W. Bijou states that in order to help development, an ample supply of physical stimuli for cognitive development is favorable along with the people who have to manage these stimuli in contingent relationships after the birth of the child (230). Another environmental contribution to intelligence, which Bijou points out is th... ...ort the conclusion that both genetic and environmental components have a significant effect upon the intelligence of the child. There has also been some research done on identical twins who live in different environments. They have been compared with siblings who are not twins but live in the same environment. The correlation results for twins who live apart is .75 and .24 for no-twin siblings who do live together. It seems that together, these two correlations almost add up to 1.00 which is the total phenotypic variance. Vernon points out that the effect of genes is much more powerful than that of the environment. Even though the precise values of the correlations are of dispute, analyses of kinship data, concludes Vernon, provides the most convincing demonstration of genetic influence on intelligence. Undoubtedly ,the subject of intelligence can be defined in many ways. To better understand intelligence psychologist have rendered two main influences as cause for variable intelligence levels. These two main influences as discussed previously cannot be explained as one being the main determinant of intelligence. This two influences are environmental and hereditary influences.